Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed the theory that predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, of which radio waves are an example, in the 1860s. His theory was given practical value when Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, showed that radio waves could be projected through space and were similar to other electromagnetic radiations that produced light and heat. But it was the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi who made radio communication feasible, sending and receiving the first radio signals in 1895. "Wireless" signals were sent across the English Channel in 1899 and across the Atlantic Ocean in 1902.

The first radio transmissions used telegraph keys to modulate the radio signal and add information to the radio wave. Morse code and a variety of other specialized codes were employed, both for military and commercial purposes. But other than for amateur radio enthusiasts, there was little of entertainment until the development of radiotelephony techniques permitting the transmission and reception of audio signals - voices and music - by radio. The first radiotelephony signals were sent and received in 1906, but these were experiments to show feasibility and not intended as entertainment.

In 1906, Lee DeForest invented the grid-modulated vacuum tube, which he designated the "audion". This enormously infuential device enabled the explosion in commercial and entertainment electronics that began after the conclusion of WWI. DeForest had his laboratory in Palo Alto, CA for a time.

The first broadcasts

From 1909 to 1917, Charles Herrold operated a broadcasting service in San Jose, CA from the College of Wireless and Engineering. His programming included regularly scheduled talks and music for a small, but loyal, group of friends, colleagues and enthusiasts. Herrold had his work cut out for him, as the use of vacuum tubes for radio transmitters was about a decade in the future. Instead of tubes, he employed a modulated spark transmitter employing a water-cooled microphone. It was crude by any definition, but it worked. Herrold's broadcasting service ended in 1917 as a result of WWI, which caused the US government to forbid private radio transmissions for security reasons. Herrolds broadcasts were unsponsored and non-commercial, but they were done on a regular schedule for the entertainment of any with the equipment to receive them.

Licensed broadcasting arrives

In 1916, a small vacuum tube transmitter was being used by Frank Conrad of Pittsburgh, PA to entertain his neighbors. Silenced during the WWI years, Conrad initiated the first government licensed broadcasts in 1920, operating with the call letters KDKA. The tube based transmitters made Herrold's spark apparatus obsolete. Western Electric built the generation of radio transmitters that allowed the commercial broadcasting industry to take root and flourish. Herrold himself adopted tube technology and began broadcasting again in 1921 with the call sign KQW, which is the ancestor of San Francisco radio station KCBS.

Early broadcast content tended to be live performances or music recorded on phonograph records. A microphone was located in front of the phonograph speaker to broadcast a recording. Sound quality was marginal, but it was like magic to the listener who heard the voices and music coming over the airwaves. Musicians were happy to appear for the publicity, the novelty, or both.

Most of the listeners to the early broadcasts used crystal radio sets. Many of these were home made. The signals were weak and headphones had to be used to listen to the detected radio signals. By 1929, a vacuum tube receiver could be purchased for about $135. Receivers improved in performance and declined in cost during the 1930s and radio ownership became widespread. But radio's ultimate competitor, television, also appeared in the late 1920s when RCA began experimental broadcasts in Scenectady. WWII interrupted the commercial expansion of TV, but the handwriting was on the wall.

The networks

As broadcasting grew, it became clear that it was beyond the means of single radio stations to generate the quantity and variety of content needed to sustain a full-time schedule. It was also clear that stations didn't have the ability to support a marketing effort to generate advertising revenue on a major scale. The solution was to create networks of affiliated radio stations in order to share program materials and to provide a competent sales force capable of marketing the air time of the affiliates for commercial sponsorship of network supplied programs. The networks rapidly were able to define and control network program content because only the networks had the ability to fund it.

NBC

In 1926, RCA purchased New York radio station WEAF from AT&T for the sum of $1,000,000 to become the nucleus of a broadcasting network, and on September 9 of that year, RCA, GE (RCA's parent corporation) and Westinghouse established the National Broadcasting Company. RCA retained a 50% interest, General Electric had a 30% share and Westinghouse a 20% share. All of these companies were manufacturers of communications equipment and related components. AT&T retained a financial interest in broadcasting by providing the 3500 miles of land-lines that linked the 19 affiliated stations of the new network. The first NBC broadcast occurred November 15.

CBS

In 1928 William S. Paley combined two struggling networks to form the Columbia Broadcasting System. Paley assumed the role of President, even though he had no real broadcasting experience, but he moved quickly to increase both advertising revenues and the number of stations in the network.

Paley was innovative: He attracted new affiliate stations by offering them unsponsored programs free, as opposed to charging for them as did competitor NBC. In return, he reserved the right to pre-empt a local station's schedule at any time to broadcast sponsored CBS programs -- a practice much appreciated by the sponsors. CBS also appealed to a wider audience than NBC. Comedy shows, soap operas and jazz bands (such as the enormously popular Paul Whiteman band) were carried on CBS. NBC at that time concentrated upon symphonies, lectures and educational programs. By the end of 1929, CBS was reporting annual profits of over $2,000,000 and had become a significant challenge to NBC's dominance of domestic broadcasting.

ABC

ABC started life in the 1920s as the second radio network - the "Blue Network" - of NBC. In 1941, the FCC believed that NBC was too powerful and required NBC to find a way to separate the two existing networks owned by NBC. One of these, the Blue Network, was reincorporated by RCA as The Blue Network, Inc. in 1942. Edward Noble (Lifesavers) purchased BNI in 1943 for approximately $8,000,000 and subsequently acquired the name "American Broadcasting Company", used by an earlier unsuccessful network, in 1945 in order to give the network a broader identity.

AFRS

The Armed Forces Radio Service was formed during WWII to provide news and entertainment to American troops. By the time WWII had ended, there were over 800 stations in the network.

Transistors give radio a break

Transistors, invented in 1948, extended the life of radio broadcasting. They permitted the rapid development of inexpensive, small radios that consumed less power and were easy to package as personal, portable devices. Transistor radios also vastly improved the reliability of automotive radios. The first transistor radio, the Regency TR-1, appeared in 1954. It had four germanium transistors, cost about $50, and had several times the battery life of competing tube radios.

During the late 1940s and early 1950s, TV began to displace radio from its role as the primary channel for broadcast family entertainment. But by 1955, 95% of US homes had radios, and the average US family owned five radios in 1990. The convenience and low price of the transistor-based radio greatly contribute to radio's longevity as a broadcast medium.

And now, a word from our sponsor....

The first radio commercial was broadcast by WEAF in New York. It was a 10 minute talk on behalf of the Queensborough Corporation, a real estate firm. WEAF charged $50 for the air time. Commercialization was not popular among the radio entusiasts or even the broadcasters. Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Department Secretary, said "It is inconceivable that we should allow so great a possibility for public service to be drowned in advertising chatter."

For the most part, advertisements on early radio were subtle, typically using the sponsor's name as a prominent part of the show's title. The "Cliquot Club Eskimos", "Ipana Troubadors", "Kraft Music Hall", "Maxwell House Showboat", "Kodak Chorus", Atwater Kent Entertainers" and the like tied corporate recognition to popular entertainment. Jack Benny, sponsored for 8 years by Jell-O (1934 - 1942), began his shows with the greeting, "Jell-O, everyone!"

Advertising didn't remain low key for very long. By the late 1920s, targeted slogans such as "Reach for a Lucky instead of a sweet" were being used to promote cigarettes. This particular slogan proved to be very effective in increasing cigarette sales to women. This more aggressive approach was quickly adopted by other sponsors. 1932 was the first year in which CBS and NBC allowed prices to be mentioned in radio commercials.

Culture wasn't overlooked

In addition to sponsored shows, there were "sustaining" programs: Content generated and supported by the radio networks or individual stations themselves. Primarily educational, cultural or religious, these programs could be inexpensively produced and could be used to demonstrate a committment to quality programming.

Radio had another cultural aspect, creating a "common fund of experience and information", as observed by David Sarnoff. Radio, like no other previous development, provided Americans with with a common cultural experience that transcended regionalism, social position, race, religion and educational background. Radio allowed business to shape the country, but in turn business was shaped by the influence of radio. Advertisers could now reach large audiences, a capability that hastened the transition from small family-owned business to larger companies with national reach and influence.

Not everyone appreciated radio at first. H. G. Wells characterized radio as useful only to "very sedentary persons living in badly lighted houses or otherwise unable to read...and who have no capacity for thought or conversation." Sounds as if he forsaw the couch potato quite well.

	This page last updated: February 18, 2003 Original content: Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 Museum of American Heritage Trademarks are the property of their owners